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Distribution and habitat The global population of common starlings was estimated to be million individuals in , occupying a total area of 8,, km2 3,, sq mi. Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe, northern Africa from Morocco to Egypt , India mainly in the north but regularly extending further south and extending into the Maldives Nepal, the Middle East including Syria, Iran, and Iraq and north-western China.

Large numbers of birds from northern Europe, Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards. In the autumn, when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe, many of Britain's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa. Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross.

Of the 15, birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside, England, individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany and the Low Countries.

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Small numbers of common starling have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated. In North America, northern populations have developed a migration pattern, vacating much of Canada in winter. Birds in the east of the country move southwards, and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US. Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites. Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland, grazing pastures, playing fields, golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy.

They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian heathland. Common starlings rarely inhabit dense, wet forests i. Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests, from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1, m 6, ft above sea level.

Introduced populations The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, North America, Fiji and several Caribbean islands. South America Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England alighted near Lago de Maracaibo in Venezuela in November , but subsequently vanished. In , a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires. Since then, despite some initial attempts at eradication, the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of 7.

In Argentina, the species makes use of a variety of natural and man-made nesting sites, particularly woodpecker holes. Australia The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops. Early settlers looked forward to their arrival, believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax, a major agricultural product. Nest-boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops. The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in and Sydney two decades later.

By the s, established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees. By the s, common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales, but by then they were considered to be pests. Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany, Western Australia in , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state.

The wide and arid Nullarbor Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55, birds over three decades. New Zealand The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of caterpillars and other insects deprived of their previous food sources.

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Native birds were not habituated to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe along with the House Sparrow to control the pests. It was first brought over in by the Nelson Acclimatisation Society and other introductions followed. The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical Kermadec Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south. He was president of the American Acclimatization Society, which reportedly tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America, although this has been disputed.

These birds became established but disappeared around Common starlings reappeared in the Pacific Northwest in the mids and these birds were probably descendants of the Central Park introduction. The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to million, occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America. Polynesia The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in on Ono-i-lau and Vatoa islands. It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the Kermadec Islands where it is abundant, that group being roughly equidistant between New Zealand and Fiji.

Its spread in Fiji has been limited, and there are doubts about the population's viability. Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group. It spread slowly, and by , had reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth. It is now common in the southern Cape region, thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area. In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is strongly associated with man and anthropogenic habitats.

It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects. It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter-specific competition.

It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may congregate in large flocks, often roosting in reedbeds. It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas. The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in , and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US. Status The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly, so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern.

It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the s and 60s. In about , S. The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from and in Iceland from The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain, and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy, Austria and Finland. It started breeding in Iberia in , while the spotless starling's range had been expanding northward since the s. The low rate of advance, about 4.

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Expansion has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain. Major declines in populations have been observed from onward in Sweden, Finland, northern Russia Karelia and the Baltic States, and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe. The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds, which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices. The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available, and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced.

Relationship with humans Benefits and problems Since common starlings eat insect pests such as wireworms, they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia, and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere. Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union, and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass grub Costelytra zelandica in New Zealand.

The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully, and even in the US, where this is a pest species, the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings. Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America, where other members of the genus are absent, may affect native species through competition for nest holes.

In North America, chickadees, nuthatches, woodpeckers, purple martins and other swallows may be affected. In Australia, competitors for nesting sites include the crimson and eastern rosellas. For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture, the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world's worst invasive species. Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes, peaches, olives, currants and tomatoes or dig up newly sown grain and sprouting crops. They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings.

In eastern Australia, weeds like bridal creeper, blackberry and boneseed are thought to have been spread by common starlings. This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States. The large size of flocks can also cause problems. Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines, one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in , when sixty-two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and plummeted into the sea at Winthrop Harbor.

Starlings' droppings can contain the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, the cause of histoplasmosis in humans. At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings. There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans, although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated. Control Because of the damage they do, there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings.

Within the natural breeding range, this may be affected by legislation. For example, in Spain, this is a species hunted commercially as a food item, and has a closed season, whereas in France, it is classed as a pest, and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year. In Great Britain, Starlings are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act , which makes it "illegal to intentionally kill, injure or take a starling, or to take, damage or destroy an active nest or its contents". The Wildlife Order in Northern Ireland allows, with a general licence, "an authorised person to control starlings to prevent serious damage to agriculture or preserve public health and safety".

This species is migratory, so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected.

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In Europe, the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long-term results. Non-lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case. Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings.

In , so many birds landed on the clock hands of London's Big Ben that it stopped, leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting, repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls. An entire episode of The Goon Show in was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London. Where it is introduced, the common starling is unprotected by legislation, and extensive control plans may be initiated.

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Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the 1. Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot, while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted.